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General Translation Theories EssayWhile non e really adept who drives an automobile postulate to netherstand the scheme behind the internal combustion engine, near iodine does need to devote it off this speculation. I whitethorn be adequate to(p) to drive my Pontiac without any cognizeledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I must uprise some genius (presumably a mechanic) who does in f human action write out enough theory to get the Pontiac waiverning again. The equivalent(p) is true of explanation theory. It is not necessary for everyone to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything more(prenominal) or less translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the Ameri force out church at the end of the twentieth century to know something rough translation theory, for two reasons. First, it will affect the mien we interpret the Bible for our state. If we atomic number 18 tout ensemble unaw atomic number 18 of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our br separates and sisters in our interpretation. Second, there ar so more incline translations available, that no contemporary pastor will be able to escape the inevitable questions more or less which translations be superior.It is not my intention to provide anything like an exhaustive nuzzle to either translation theory or semantic theory (relax, Ill define this treatment later). Rather, I intend to discuss short the more grievous observations, which may be useful to the pastoral ministry. 1. Communication has leash parties. Translation theory sh bes a number of concerns with what is commsolely c exclusivelyed confabulation theory. Perhaps the close to beta observation which the communication theorists induct produced for translators is the recognition that every act of communication has super acid chord dimensions Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience.The mor e we can know closely the original author, the actual mental object produced by that author, and the original audition, the conk out acquainted we will be with that particular proposition act of communication. An alive(predicate)ness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking place, as you read what I wrote, there are leash dimensions to this particular act of communication myself, and what I am intending to communicate the actual battle crys which are on this page and what youunderstand me to be saying.When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient. If we know, perhaps from another root word, what an individual authors circumstances are, this may help us understand the actual message produced. Martin Luther King, Jr. s Letters from Prison are better understood by someone who knows the circumstances under which they were indite rather than by someone who is oblivious to mid-20th century American history. If we know nurture about the authors earreach, this may as well help us to understand the message itself.John Kennedys famous, Ich bin ein Berliner speech is better understood if one understands the apprehensions which many western hemisphere German citizens had about American foreign policy during the early 1960s (and, knowing the audience was German may help explain why he did not speak this sentence in side ). Recognizing that in addition to the message itself, there are the two other components of author and audience, the interpreter look fors to put out as much in make upation as manageable about the author and audience.This is why biblical scholars authorise so much time attempting to locate the circumstances of a apt(p) epistle they are trying to obtain information about author and audience, which will help complete the understanding of the particular act of communication represented by the message. At this point , an important warning needs to be expressed. For students of literature whose original audience and author are not present (i. e. , dead), we only befool direct access to one of the three parties in the communicative process the message itself.Whereas we would be profited by having direct access to author and audience (capital of Minnesota, what in the world did you mean about baptizing for the dead? or, How did it hit you Galatians when capital of Minnesota said he wished his troublers would abridge themselves? ), it would be incorrect to suggest that we must sop up such(prenominal) access for any understanding to get a line place. Frequently one encounters the extravagant statement to the effect that one cannot understand a biblical hold unless one understands the authors (or audiences) circumstances.The problem with such statements is that they imply that we can live with no understanding without access to information which simply does not always exist. We havent any idea who wrote the epistle to the Hebrews, or why, other than what may be indicated in the letter itself. Does this mean that we cant understand it in any sense? I think not. We salutary have to recognize that information, which would assist the act of interpretation, is, in this case, mis chirrup. Related to this warning is a second.For Protestants, scripture itself is authoritative. Our reconstructions, very much highly conjectural of the historical circumstances under which a given biblical work was written and read, are not authoritative, by my understanding of Protestant divinity. Those reconstructions may assist our understanding of the biblical text, provided they are not, in and of themselves, of any religious authority. Finally, we readiness add that the essential error of many exegetical theories is their exclusion of one or more of these three parties from consideration.While many important debates are continue to influence interpretive theory, our evaluation of these debates would do well to retain a role for each of the three above-mentioned dimensions. 2. Formal and Dynamic Equivalence One of the ongoing debates about translations revolves around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translation should reflect the syntax, or form, of the original address. All translators agree that the translation should reflect faithfully the message of the original, provided all are not agreed on whether the translation should adhere closely to the well-formed forms of the original language.Translations can be located on a spectrum, which would have, at one extreme, rigid bail bond to the form of the original language (formal comparability), and at the other extreme, complete disregard for the form (not the message) of the original language (dynamic comparison). An interlinear would have it away the closest to the first extreme, followed by the NASB. At the other extreme would be the eyeshade and TEV. In between would be the RSV and NIV, w ith the RSV leaning more toward a formal equivalence, and the NIV leaning more toward a dynamic equivalence.It is probably fair to say that just about contemporary linguists favor the dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to be sick the thought of the original without attempting to conform to its form is that all languages have their own syntax. While the syntax of one language may be similar to the syntax of other languages, it is also dissimilar as well. Thus, if we attempt to adhere to the formal syntax of another language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal or confusing, if not honest distracting in the target language.For example, Greek tends to have very long sentences, whose various clauses are arranged in a logically hierarchical fashion. That is, there will be a number of dependent clauses connected to an independent clause. This type of sentence structure, perfe ctly normal in Greek, is called hypotactic (clauses are arranged logically under one another). slope, by contrast, is not so comfortable with long sentences, and does not provide any favourable way of indicating which clauses are dependent upon others.Our sentence structure is called paratactic (clauses are arranged logically alongside of one another). If we attempt to reproduce, in English, sentences of the same length as the Greek original, our audience will not be able to follow our translation. Ephesians 13-14, for instance, is one sentence in Greek, with well-defined subordinate clauses. If we attempt to reproduce a sentence of this length in English, the result will be so awkward that a couple of(prenominal), if any, English readers would be able to follow it. Consequently, translators must break the longer Greek sentences into shorter English sentences.For the pastor and teacher, it is important to be able to recognize the hypotactic structure of the original language, be cause it is ofttimes of theological and ethical significance. For instance, there is only one imperative (independent clause) in the Great mission make disciples. All the other verbs are dependent. The other clauses help to describe what the commandment means. Most English translations, however, obscure this point by translating the Great Commission as though it were a string of equivalent imperatives.Whats worse, they tend to treat one of the dependent clauses as though it were the major (independent) clause (Go). So the teacher or pastor needs to be able to understand what is going on in the structure of the original language, without necessarily trying to reproduce it in an English translation. There are other differences between the two languages. Greek typically uses passive verbs English prefers active verbs. Greek typically makes nouns out of verbs (making redemption as reciprocal as redeem). Speakers of English are not as comfortable with these abstractions we are happi er with verbs.A dynamic equivalence translation will communally reproduce the meaning of the Greek in a more natural manner in English. In 2 Thess 213, for instance, pistei aletheias, is understandd belief in the truth (formal equivalence) by the RSV, simply the truth that you believe (dynamic equivalence) by the NEB. The latter, while not any more accurate than the former, is a little more natural, and thus more easily understood. A classic example of the difference between English and Greek syntax is testify by the difference in their respective employment of the participial. First, the Greek participle is much more joint than the English.solely the Greek participle is also used differently than the English participle. Greek commonly employs the participle in an attributive fashion, as a verbal adjective. This is very rare in English. James Taylor does sing about the The Walking Man, but this is rare outside of artistic expression. We would commonly produce a intercourse c lause, the man who walks. Because of the differences in the way the two languages use their respective participles, we simply cannot translate a Greek participle with an English participle in many cases, without being obscure or enigmatical.Dikaiothentes in Romans 51 should not be translated, having been expertified (NASB formal equivalence), but, since we are justified (RSV dynamic equivalence). There are problems, however, with dynamic equivalence translations. Since the translator is freer from the grammatic forms of the original language he is more likely to eliminate the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language. That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong.For instance, in Romans 83, Paul uses the phrase dia tes sarkos. A formal equivalent translation, the RSV, renders this by t he flesh, which is faithful to the original but somewhat ambiguous in English. The NIV renders this much more precisely, by the phrase, by the sinful genius. Unfortunately, the NIV is precisely wrong here, because Paul is not talking about a lower nature, or a sinful nature at all. In occurrence, he is not speaking anthropologically, but redemptive-historically.In this particular case, I believe we would be better off with the ambiguous flesh, and have to ask what, flesh means for Paul, than to have the more precise but utterly un-Pauline sinful nature. Another problem associated with dynamic equivalence translations is related to their use as guinea pig Bibles. Since a given record may have a number of meanings, it is frequently impossible, and more frequently confusing, to attempt to translate a given Greek word with the same English word in every case. Consequently, the dynamic equivalence translation can give a morespecific get in English, being unbound by an attempt to r eproduce the same Greek word in the same English manner. This produces better understanding, frequently, of individual sentences or clauses. However, it does not permit the English reader to know when the same Greek word lay behind two different English row. Since the only way to know what a word means is by first examining its full range of uses, there is no way for the English reader to know what words are behind the English words found.For instance, when Paul says he could not address the Corinthians as pneumatikoi, but rather as sarkinoi (1 Cor 3), he employs the adjectival forms of what we normally translate smelling and flesh. And, in Romans 8 (as well as elsewhere), it is clear that life in the Spirit is redeemed life whereas life in the flesh is unredeemed life. If the adjectives in 1 Cor are translated spiritual, and fleshly, the reader can guarantee the correspondence to other Pauline passages, and understand that Paul is saying, in effect, I could not address you as r edeemed people, but as unredeemed people. provided the NIV construes sarx as sinful nature in Rom 8, and sarkinos as worldly in 1 Cor 3, with the result that the reader of this translation is not aware that in the original the same root form was employed. The conclusion of this is that the dynamic equivalence translation, when do well, renders in more precise and more vivid English particular expressions. However, it makes it more difficult to discriminate individual passages with parallel passages elsewhere. In any given congregation, a variety of translations will be present.The teachers in the church must have the competence to discern which one represents the original most accurately in English in any circumstance. In my judgment, none of the contemporary translations is manifestly superior to the others. Each is a blend of strengths and weaknesses, due to the difficulty of the task. From the pulpit, of course, some versions can be excluded rather easily. Paraphrases, while u seful to embellish a point, should never be used as the basic sermon text, because they reflect so soundly the opinions of the paraphraser.Also, childrens Bibles, such as the Good News, and, to a lesser degree, the NIV should not be used as the stern of a sermon directed toward the built-in congregation. The NASB should not be used, simply because its English is atrocious. Its rigid affixation to the formal equivalence principle, while making it highly useful in the show, renders it exclusively in permit in a setting where communication is important. The NIV should not be used from the pulpit, in my judgment, because it is a sectarian translation.It is a self-confessedly evangelical translation, which excluded non-evangelicals from the translation process. It is therefore ecclesiastically unacceptable (it excludes from the outset people who dont call themselves evangelical, just as the Kingdom Translation excludes people who dont call themselves Jehovahs Witnesses). In fact, e ven for study purposes, one will have to be cautious about the evangelical bias reflected in this translation, whereby the weaknesses, as well as the strengths, of evangelicalism have not been offset by a more inclusive committee.Specifically, the NIV shows many signs of being individualistic, experientialist, and revivalistic (I am speaking about the NIV New Testament I havent evaluated the NIV Old Testament thoroughly yet). At the same time, the NIV ought to be in the ministers study because it is a good illustration of the demands of a dynamic equivalence translation, and it is also very successful at many points. The RSV, reflecting the breadth of the church, a high style of English, and a fairly accurate representation of the original text, is perhaps the preferred text for pulpit use.3.Translation is a theological task It has become increasingly clear that translation cannot existently be performed in a theological vacuum. When a variety of linguistic options present themsel ves, theological factors can influence the decision to choose one option over the other. In fact, such factors should influence the translation. The resolution of the translation question about how to translate telos in Romans 104 is resolved in large part by resolving big questions about Pauls theology how he understands the relation between the older testament and the Christ event, etc.Since theology is to be de conditionined by the Bible, and since translating the Bible is determined, at least(prenominal) in part, by theological considerations, it is slack to see that there is something of a circle here. Fortunately, it is not a vicious cycle, because if one is willing to harbour sympathetically a variety of options, one can grow in the confidence with which one evaluates a given translation. One must never pretend, however, that translation is a grade of pre-exegesis or pre-interpretation. The first step of interpretation istranslation.This step will influence all other st eps, so it must be approached with the entire arsenal of theological tools. semantic Theory It is appropriate now to move to some consideration of dealings with the meaning of individual words (commonly called lexical semantics). A lexicon in the hands of an over-imaginative prophesyer may be the deadliest of all human instruments. In term of sheer percentages, more pulpit nonsense may be attributable to a misunderstanding of how words communicate meaning than any other interpretive error.Since the technological study of linguistics began in the early nineteenth century, a number of very valuable insights have been assumeed by the linguists. What follows is an attempt at providing some of their most useful insights for those who want to teach and preach faithfully. 1. Semantic Field and Context Most words can mean a number of things. cause the English word, dominate. It can seem in the following (and many more) contexts The athlete is betning. Her nose is running. We score d a run in the sixth inning. I have a run in my stocking. Does your car run? My estimator runs on Windows.For how long is the movie running? You want to run that by me again? His sermons seem to run on forever. Shes running the flag up the pole. Jackson is running for President. Who left the water running? Enough, already. It is clear that most words can mean a number of different things. How do we know what a word means in a given circumstance? Well, we dont just choose the one we prefer. In fact there are two components to meaning semantic field and semantic context. By semantic field, we mean the full range of ways the word has and can be used (an example is the above, partial(p) semantic field for run).By examining the field of possible meanings, we begin to narrow the options. Normally, there are gloss over too many options, so we have to take another step. The second step is to determine the semantic context. If run, for instance, can refer to rapid, bipedal locomotion in s ome contexts, we can eliminate that option in contexts where there are no legs or feet. If run can mean flow, or drip, it is a possible way of understanding it where noses and faucets appear, but not where liquids do not appear.In everyday speech, we do this good-hearted of comparison to semantic context so rapidly and unreflectively that we are not normally aware of doing it. But we do it nevertheless, and normally with great accuracy. It is imperative that we do this with biblical literature as well. No word brings its full semantic field with it into any given context. Yet many fanciful pulpit statements are due to the attempt to do this very thing. 2. Root Meanings some people speak of root meanings. Many people speak of ghosts. Neither exists.Apparently, when people speak of root meanings of words, they are attempting to find the distilled essence, or the common semantic range of the word in each of its contexts. This may, by dumb luck, work in some circumstances, but it won t work in most. What common root meaning is there in the word run which can account for the variety of uses listed above? Is it motion? Perhaps, for the athlete, the flag, even the nose (which doesnt move itself, but its contents do). But is there any motion involved in the statement that a soulfulness is running for an office?Is any motion taking place when a movie runs for six weeks? Is a run in a stocking a movement of some sort? I fail to see how there is, without redefining the word motion to include virtually everything. And if we do this, then we arent learning anything specific about the term in question (This is the practical deficiency of the Componential Analysis approach to Semantics if one finds an element common enough to be related to all the various uses, it isnt specific enough to be any real help in any given context). In actual fact, we dont really know why people use terms in such a broad range of ways as they do.But the answer su trust doesnt lie in the fact o f some alleged root meaning, common to all uses. Thus, for interpretations sake, it is better not to speak of root meanings at all. Just look at the entire semantic field, and then limit that field by the contextual considerations. This doesnt mean that there are no similarities in the variety of a terms uses. If we return to run, we can determine several sub-fields. We can see run used of liquids, to indicate they are flowing. We can see run used with machines to indicate that they are in operation(p) as they should.We can see it used in reference to putting one foot earlier of another repeatedly, in rapid succession, which would embrace the athlete, and, by extension, the runs in a baseball game (which are a short-hand reference to someone running around the bases). But these fields do not appear to be related to each other, and worse, these fields do not account for the stocking or the flag. Perhaps we ought to just bring root meanings out once a year, on October 31st, and then put them back for the light of the year. 3. Etymologies and Semantic Change Etymology is a perfectly valid field of study.Etymology is the study of the history of a words usage. It has the historical benefit of demonstrating to us what a word might have meant in a given period. One thing etymologists have discovered, of course, is that words change over time. That is, people apparently use terms in an increasing variety of ways, extending known usages, and coining new usages. Thus, the history of a words usage is not necessarily any help in ascertain its meaning in a particular context. And certainly it is not the case that the earliest known meaning is the true, real, or, need I say it, root meaning.Gay, for instance, might well have meant joyful or carefree in certain places in certain times. It most emphatically does not mean that today in San Francisco. Do not be misled a happy hour at a gay bar may be a very touching experience for a heterosexual teetotaler. The biblical i nterpreter is not particularly interested in what a term may have meant several centuries prior to the time in question. Rather, the biblical interpreter wants to know what range of meaning a term had in the period in question. Etymology is not particularly useful as a guide to the meaning of a term in any given context.Semantic context is the more reliable guide. 4. Polyvalency You may run across (oops, another use of run) this term from time to time, so you may as well know what it means. Polyvalency refers to the ability of a given term to have a number of meanings in any given historical period. Run is polyvalent. It is important for the interpreter to be aware of the full range of possible meanings of a given word, before determining what it means in its given context. 5. Words and Concepts For the sake of clarity, it is helpful to distinguish between a word and a concept.Most words can be employed to denote a number of concepts, and most concepts can be addressed by using a r ange of terms. Thus, charis is a word dump is a concept which can be labeled in a variety of ways. So, if you want to study, The beautify of God in the New Testament, you would certainly include not only a word study of charis, but also passages which refer to Gods human activity without employing that particular term. For instance, the parable of the laborers in the vineyard reflects Gods gracious character, as those who come along late in the day receive equal recompense with those who have labored all day.God graciously gives the nation not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles, who come on the scene a bit late, redemptive-historically speaking. 6. Semantic Minimalism One of the best axioms to apply when attempting to discover the meaning of any given word was first coined by Ferdinand de Saussure and his followers. The best meaning of a given term is the meaning which contributes the least to the overall meaning of the sentence. In most communication acts, we do not loa d up a given word with a lot of meaning.Rather, we speak in paragraphs and sentences the individual words have little meaning in and of themselves, but much meaning when fastened to one another. Many seminarians and preachers seem to be unaware of this, for they frequently interpret the Bible as though its individual words were almost magical, possessing great truths and mysteries in six or seven letters. There are very few technical terms in any language, which are more heavily wicked than most words. Concluding Observations If one were to state briefly the results of linguistic study in the last few generations, one would certainly have to refer to the importance of context.Linguistics has made us repeatedly aware of the fact that the fundamental communicative unit is the sentence, not the word. Individual words, removed from the context of a sentence, rarely communicate effectively. Words strung together, mutually supporting and interpreting one another, can communicate very effectively. For biblical students, this means that we must look at the larger unites of communication (the sentence and paragraph) at least as seriously as we look at individual words. We must be aware of the fact that a given word can signify a number of different things in a number of different contexts.Personally, I would like to see more sermons on whole chapters of scripture, and even on entire books, and fewer sermons on a verse here or there. If a person can produce a single 20-minute distillation of Romans 1-11, he can certainly handle Romans 63 when it shows up. If the contextual emphasis of contemporary linguistics can help us see the forest of a biblical book, as opposed to merely the trees of individual words, it will have done us and Gods kingdom a great service. ________________________________________ Dr. T.David Gordon, a native of Richmond, VA, is currently Professor of Religion and Greek at plantation City College in Grove City, PA, where he has served since 1999 . Previously, he had taught for thirteen years at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. ________________________________________ explanation METHODS WORD FOR WORD translation The SL word order is preserved and the words translated by their most common meanings. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of this method is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as pre-translation process. LITERAL translation The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical items are again translated out of context. As pre-translation process, it indicates problems to be solved. FAITHFUL translation It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from SL norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the te xt-realisation of the SL writer. SEMANTIC translation It differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repetition jars in the finished version. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership. While faithful translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible. COMMUNICATIVE translation It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. idiomatical translation It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. FREE translation It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. ADAPTATION This is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry themes, characters, plots preserved, SL culture converted to TL culture and text is rewritten. From A Textbook of Translation by P. Newmark